Appendices

APPENDIX A: Risk factors for offending/recidivism by females

Research	Similar to males	Different/Unique for females	Not predictive	Assess also
Alder & Bazemore (1979) [recidivism]		History of drug dependency Number of prior incarcerations
Andrews & Bonta (2003) No specific research on females [offending and recidivism]	Big 8: Anti-social attitudes Anti-social associates Anti-social behaviour Anti-social personality pattern Problematic circumstances at home Problematic circumstances at school or work Problematic use of leisure/recreational time Substance abuse	Unclear: Importance of school/work Personal stress Non-criminogenic interpersonal targets
Benda (2005) 300 male and female graduates USA boot camp [recidivism]		Childhood and recent sexual and physical abuse Adverse feelings Living with a criminal partner Drug use Protective = life transitions; forming a family with a caring partner		Attachment Relationships
Bonta, Pang, & Wallace-Capretta (1995) 173 sentenced + conditionally released females [recidivism]	Many risk factors equal (prior criminal history, certain offence types, sentence length) Drug/narcotic infraction, life imprisonment, full parole inversely related to recidivism	Unarmed robbery Single-parent mothers Illegal sources of income Depending on welfare History of physical abuse as adult History of self injury Violence toward staff Number of incidents in prison	History of juvenile delinquency Weapon Offence with associate Alcohol and drug abuse
Farrington & Painter (2004) Brothers and sisters of males in Cambridge study in Delinquent Development [offending]	Low family income Large family size Attending a high delinquency rate school Convicted father Convicted mother Delinquent sibling Parental conflict Separation from a parent Harsh or erratic parental discipline Poor parental supervision	More strongly for sisters: Low social class Low family income Poor housing Low praise by parents Harsh or erratic discipline Parental conflict Low parental interest in education Low parental interest in the children More strongly for brothers: Nervous fathers and mothers Poorly educated fathers and mothers		Family Factors
Loucks & Zamble (1999, 2000) 100 Canadian federally sentenced females (serious female offenders) [recidivism]	Considerable similarities e.g. age at first arrest Psychopathy Measures of personality and current functioning			Trauma Depression Victimisation
Moth & Hudson (1999) Literature review	Younger age at admission to prison Younger age at first conviction Younger age at time of interview Previous drug conviction History of violence towards staff Number of incidents towards prison staff	History of physical abuse as an adult History of self injury History of psychiatric hospitalisation Prior suicide attempts History of early childhood disruption by adoption, fostering or institutionalisation
Stuart & Brice-Baker (2004) Analysis of available theoretical and empirical data. Study of 60 imprisoned females. [recidivism]		Age (but: some older women are first time offenders i.e., not a continuation of pattern) Arrests while under legal supervision Offence type i.e. drug and property offences Age of first imprisonment Not looking forward to release

APPENDIX B: Risk factors for violent re-offending by females

Research	Similar to males	Different/Unique for females	Not predictive	Assess also
Cale & Lilienfeld (2002) Review of empirical literature on psychopathy and antisocial personality disorder	Similar structure of psychopathy	Psychopathy and anti-social personality disorder less prevalent
Grann (2000) European study of 36 matched pairs of female and male violent offenders	Majority of PCL-R items not different between genders except: Callous/lack of empathy Juvenile delinquency	Promiscuous sexual behaviour
Hare (2003)	Standard PCL-R scores have same meaning with respect to construct of psychopathy across groups and settings
Jackson, Rogers, Newmann, & Lambert (2002) 119 female inmates		Lower prevalence of psychopathy Be circumspect in using psychopathy for risk assessment 3 factor model captures better psychopathy dimensions in females Lack of emotional range and empathy (callousness, lack of remorse, shallow affect)
Kennealy, Hicks, & Patrick (2005) 226 female inmates ??? USA	Two factor and four facet models of PCL-R valid and reliable
Loucks & Zamble (2000)	Psychopathy predicts general offending, violent behaviour and prison maladjustment Measures of personality and current functioning	Pre-adolescent sexual abuse PCL-R Factor 1 scores as closely related to criminal behaviour as factor 2 scores Factor 2 more associated with violence
Nicholls, Ogloff, & Douglas (2004) 268 involuntary hospitalised male and female psychiatric patients	Similar scores on HCR-20 upon discharge Psychopathy moderate to strong relationship with community and institutional violence	Lower score on subscales and total score on HCR-20 at admission Use multiple tools for risk assessment Utility of risk measures uncertain Psychopathy not predictive for physical violence HCR-20 and PCL:SV moderate to strong predictive accuracy
Odgers, Moretti, & Reppucci (2005) Reviewed empirical data regarding violent adolescent girls	Anti-social peers Academic problems Anti-social parental behaviour	Exposure to sexual abuse Psychiatric co-morbidity (depression) Threat to interpersonal relationships Insecure attachment		Type, severity, duration of abuse Relationship with perpetrator Availability of support Co-morbid disorders
Putkonen, Komulainen, Virkkunen, Eronen, & L??nnqvist (2003) Homicidal female offenders with personality and psychotic disorders		Re-offend within 2 years of index offence Criminal activity before index offence Personality disorders Young Substance addiction Decreased risk: psychotic disorders
Quinsey, Harris, Rice, & Cormier (1999) Actuarial tool for male forensic population			Violence Risk Appraisal Guide (VRAG) not tested on ability to predict violent recidivism among female offenders. One study proposes further research.
Richards, Casey, & Lucente (2003) 404 incarcerated female substance abusers		PCL-R Factor 1 related to increased risk of recidivism after treatment and release Psychopathy scores strongly related to recidivism following community release Psychopathy scores associated with institutional rule violations, treatment non-compliance, avoidance of urine analysis, general and violent prison misconduct
Rogers, Salekin, Hill, Sewell, Murdock, & Newman (2000) PCL:SV unanalysed data from: 103 female offenders (Salekin, 1997) 150 male forensic patients (Hill, 1996) 120 male adolescent offenders (Murdoch & Rogers, 1997)		PCL:SV subcriteria Fraud artist or conman (sic) No capacity for guilt ??? no conscience Little emotion in regard to actions Protective (reversed): Often physically abusive Outbursts are short-lived No realistic long-term plans or commitments Lived day-to-day Not thinking of the future
Salekin, Rogers, Ustad, & Uwell (1998) 78 female inmates		Psychopathy moderately predicts recidivism Psychopathy modest to poor predictor of recidivism related to classification accuracy PCL-R Factor 1 criteria appropriately predict recidivism; not the behavioural criteria. Different factor structure. Caution! Higher co-morbidity (depression, anxiety)
Strand & Belfrage (2001) Violent mentally ill men (85) and women (63) retrospectively assessed	Few significant differences on items, subscale and total scores of HCR-20 and PCL:SV HCR-20 useful to assess inpatient violence for this group More severe violence in community and other patients	Lower scores on ???previous??? violence but less serious yet same frequency More inpatient violence towards staff or self Borderline personality disorder Strong correlation self-destructive behaviour and inpatient violence
Vitale, Smith, Brinkley, & Newman (2002) 528 adult, non-psychotic incarcerated women Caucasian and African-American	PCL-R reliable and valid, also across race	Lower prevalence of psychopathy Different factor structure of psychopathy Relation between PCL-scores and anxiety, negative affectivity and low intelligence Aetiology?
Weizman-Henelius, Viemer??, & Eronen (2004) 61 violent female offenders		Violent offenders (compared to non-offenders): Adverse experiences in childhood and adulthood Problems in family of origin Psychiatric care Substance abuse Personality disorders Cognitive deficits History of attempted suicide Problematic relationship year prior to index offence Repeat violent offenders (compared to first time offenders): Younger age first violent offence Victims less emotionally close History of non-violent crimes Substance abuse! Anti-social personality disorder Borderline personality disorder Witnessed violence in family of origin Parents divorced Lived in foster homes more
Wong & Gordon (1999) Structured guidelines for risk of violent recidivism for institutionalised forensic males	Violence Risk Scale (VRS) gender and race neutral	No studies to support this

APPENDIX C: Risk factors for sexual re-offending by females

Risk Factors	Similar to Males	Different/Unique to Females	Assess
Beech, Fisher, & Thornton (2003) Overview of actuarial and clinical assessment tools			Ability to resist pressure from male co-offender Role as caretaker of children
Nathan & Ward (2001, 2002) Overview of important factors and issues based on literature review Study of 12 female sex offenders	Some similarities in profile	Self-harm prior to or after offence or potential for self-harm Emotional attachment to victim Ability to express rage and rejection Chronicity of rage and rejection Homosexual orientation Intellectual deficits Deviant arousal and fantasies Sexual dysfunction Use of force Anti-social tendencies Psychological dysfunction	Motives Specific needs met by offence What problem did offending solve
Grayston & De Luca (1999) Review of existing clinical and empirical literature on female sex offenders (profiles)		Profile of female sex offenders	Passive or active offending History of abuse as child, adolescent, adult Mental health problems (depression, personality disorder, substance abuse) Interpersonal/marital problems Coping skills re daily demands Perception and response to child stimuli Other types of child maltreatment
Hunter & Mathews, 1997 (literature review) Mathew, Hunter, & Vuz, 1997 (67 juvenile female sex offenders compared to 70 juvenile male sex offenders) Vick, McRoy, & Mathews, 2002 (literature review and survey of mental health providers) Profile of juvenile female sex offenders compared to juvenile male sex offenders	Use of force Victims of both genders Younger children	Profile of female juvenile sex offenders
Kalders, Inkster, & Britt (1997) 25 New Zealand females convicted between 1978 and 1994 In-depth study of profile of 8 offenders		Profile of New Zealand female sex offenders	Personality Cognitive functioning Emotional functioning nterpersonal skills Sexual attitudes, beliefs and behaviour Abuse/trauma factors
Williams & Nicholaichuk (2001) Follow up of 61 female sex offenders		Extra familial victims Committed offence alone Victims of both genders Disordered

Other studies, such as Atkinson (2000, 19 Canadian female sex offenders), Lewis & Stanley (2000, retrospective chart review of 15 female sex offenders in psychiatric hospital) and Vandiver & Walker (2002, 40 registered female sex offenders in Arkansas in 1999) have focused on profile data rather than on risk factors for recidivism.

Note that the Static-AS cannot be used for female sexual offenders.

Appendices

APPENDIX A: Risk factors for offending/recidivism by females

Research

Similar to males

Different/Unique for females

Not predictive

Assess also

Alder & Bazemore (1979)

Andrews & Bonta (2003)

Benda (2005)

Bonta, Pang, & Wallace-Capretta (1995)

Farrington & Painter (2004)

Loucks & Zamble (1999, 2000)

Moth & Hudson (1999)

Stuart & Brice-Baker (2004)

APPENDIX B: Risk factors for violent re-offending by females

Research

Similar to males

Different/Unique for females

Not predictive

Assess also

Cale & Lilienfeld (2002)

Grann (2000)

Hare (2003)

Jackson, Rogers, Newmann, & Lambert (2002)

Kennealy, Hicks, & Patrick (2005)

Loucks & Zamble (2000)

Nicholls, Ogloff, & Douglas (2004)

Odgers, Moretti, & Reppucci (2005)

Putkonen, Komulainen, Virkkunen, Eronen, & L??nnqvist (2003)

Quinsey, Harris, Rice, & Cormier (1999)

Richards, Casey, & Lucente (2003)

Rogers, Salekin, Hill, Sewell, Murdock, & Newman (2000)

Salekin, Rogers, Ustad, & Uwell (1998)

Strand & Belfrage (2001)

Vitale, Smith, Brinkley, & Newman (2002)

Weizman-Henelius, Viemer??, & Eronen (2004)

Wong & Gordon (1999)

APPENDIX C: Risk factors for sexual re-offending by females

Risk Factors

Similar to Males

Different/Unique to Females

Assess

Beech, Fisher, & Thornton (2003)

Nathan & Ward (2001, 2002)

Grayston & De Luca (1999)

Hunter & Mathews, 1997 (literature review)

Mathew, Hunter, & Vuz, 1997

Vick, McRoy, & Mathews, 2002

Kalders, Inkster, & Britt (1997)

Williams & Nicholaichuk (2001)